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Article History

Received: 21 January 2026

Accepted: 27 May 2026

First Online: 2 June 2026

Declarations

:

: The study protocol was approved by the ethical committee of the Department of Clinical Psychology, Koya University (Ref: 3,9,71 on January 15, 2023). Subsequently, permission was obtained from the General Education Administration of Sulaymaniyah and from Non-governmental schools (Ref: 747 and 746, respectively, on January 10, 2023). Before data collection commenced, the researcher briefed the students on the study’s objectives and their right to withdraw at any time. Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents. To ensure the protection of participant data, anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the research process, with all identifying information removed during the data entry stage.To ensure ethical participation and minimise potential psychological distress, specific exclusion criteria were applied. Students diagnosed with severe mental disorders were excluded from the study based on school counsellor reports, parental disclosure during the consent process, and, where applicable, formal medical records. This measure was taken to protect vulnerable students from any adverse emotional impact that might arise during the completion of surveys related to childhood adversity and victimisation.

: ‘Not applicable’.

: The authors declare no competing interests.