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Article History

Received: 18 June 2024

Accepted: 13 March 2025

First Online: 28 May 2025

Additional Information

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: Jacqueline M. Vink and Maaike Verhagen were supported by a ZonMw grant (grant number: 10430 03201 0009). Jolien Braet was supported by funding from the Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds (BOF) from Ghent University (Grant agreement No. BOF20/DOC/015). The “Outside-in” dataset used in this study was from a project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No. 853517).

: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

: Following the Workflow for Open Reproducible Code in Science (Van Lissa et al., ), the preregistration (hypotheses and analysis plan), materials, primary data and analysis codes of this study are available via .

: The authors made the following contributions. Tak Tsun Lo: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing — original draft, Writing — Review & Editing; Maaike Verhagen: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Writing — review & editing; J. Loes Pouwels: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing — original draft, Writing — Review & Editing; Eeske van Roekel: Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing; Sarah T. O’Brien: Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing; Gillian Debra: Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing; Jolien Braet: Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing; Jacqueline M. Vink: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Resources, Supervision, Writing — Review & Editing; Dominique F. Maciejewski: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing — original draft, Writing — Review & editing.

: This research complies with the Declaration of Helsinki (2023) and received approval from local ethics boards (ID: ECSW20170805-516, EC-2017.95, BC-09559). Informed consent, parental consent, and/or written assent from adolescents were obtained in the five studies (see Supplemental Materials for details).

: Not applicable

: The hypotheses and methods were preregistered () on 2022-05-04 prior to accessing the five datasets used in this study. There was an update of preregistration on 2023-10-19 for the purpose of including more datasets to achieve sufficient power for our hypotheses (for details, see Supplementary Materials ).