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Article History

Received: 14 January 2025

Accepted: 8 September 2025

First Online: 31 October 2025

Additional Information

:

: Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions. This project was funded by University of Western Australia start-up funding to B.L.K. and T.G. was supported by Australian Research Council DE230100380. 

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Experimental materials and anonymized data are available at https:/osf.io/vxuf8/

: B.L.K: conceptualization, methodology, software, investigation, resources, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, supervision. J.W.T.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. T.G.: methodology, formal analysis, software, writing—review and editing. S.B.M.: conceptualization, methodology, writing—review and editing.

: This project was conducted in part for J.W.T.’s honours thesis at the University of Western Australia. Many thanks to Yosi Regan for helpful discussion about this project.

: The study was approved by the University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Office, Protocol 2021/ET000232, “Rating images for their emotionality.” Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

: All participants consented for their data to be used for research purposes and for deidentified data to be shared.