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Article History

Received: 19 July 2025

Accepted: 17 January 2026

First Online: 6 February 2026

Declarations

:

: PM₂.₅, NO₂, BPA, and phthalates demonstrate significant, dose-dependent adverse impacts on male and female fertility parameters, including semen quality, ovarian reserve, oocyte yield, and CPR. These results underscore the pressing need for regulatory measures and further research to alleviate reproductive health threats from rising environmental pollution.

: None declared

: Not required for secondary analysis of published data

: Not applicable

: All authors consent