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Authors
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (CSO2016-79945-P)
Departament d'Empresa i Coneixement, Generalitat de Catalunya
Universitat de Barcelona
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Article History
Received: 10 December 2024
Revised: 23 May 2025
Accepted: 1 September 2025
First Online: 13 April 2026
Declarations
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: Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. For this paper, we used primary data collected during the first and second waves of the study, 2013 and 2014, and 2014 and 2015. It is a representative sample for the city of Barcelona, comprised of 2056 pupils in the 10th grade (15 and 16 years old)—the last year of compulsory education—in the 2013 and 2014 academic year from 27 schools. The sample includes those also born in 1998 but in lower years due to having repeated a year.
: Informed consent was given by all the participants and their parents.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
