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Article History

Received: 16 August 2025

Accepted: 13 January 2026

First Online: 5 February 2026

Declarations

:

: This study uses secondary data from the 2019/2020 National Sample Census of Agriculture (NSCA), conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) of Tanzania in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and the World Bank. The dataset is anonymized and publicly accessible for research and policy analysis. As such, no additional ethical approval was required for this study. The use of these data adheres to the NBS terms and conditions governing secondary data analysis. Because this study relies solely on anonymized secondary data collected and managed by the NBS, individual consent to participate was not required. All personal identifiers were removed prior to data access, ensuring full compliance with ethical standards for secondary use of census data.

: Since no personal or identifiable information was accessed or used, and no individuals participated directly in the research, consent for publication was not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.