Document is current

Article History

Received: 1 October 2025

Accepted: 3 February 2026

First Online: 26 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards and guidelines of the Department of Economics at the University of Reading, Whiteknights, United Kingdom. The study did not involve human participants, the collection of identifiable personal data, or clinical procedures requiring formal consent; therefore, clinical trial registration and informed consent to participate were not applicable. Where secondary or publicly available data were used, all relevant usage rights and data handling protocols were strictly followed in line with the University of Reading's data protection policies and research ethics framework. All methods and analyses were carried out in accordance with relevant institutional and disciplinary guidelines. The authors affirm that the study complies with the University of Reading's Code of Good Research Practice and upholds the principles of integrity, transparency, and accountability. This research did not involve collecting primary data directly from respondents.

: Not applicable.

: This research does not involve human participants in a clinical trial. Hence, registration is not applicable.

: This article is based on research conducted as part of the author's doctoral thesis titled "Essays on the Impacts and Spillover Effects of Energy Prices and the Stock Market: Evidence from the United States and Its Main Trading Partners," which was submitted to and accepted by the University of Reading in fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree. The PhD was awarded in 2024. This manuscript includes revised content from that thesis.

: The authors declare no competing interests.