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Article History

Received: 19 March 2026

Accepted: 27 May 2026

First Online: 3 June 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The study received ethical clearance from the University of Dar es Salaam, Senate Research and Publication Committee (Ref. UDSM/SRPC/EC/2025/023) and approval from the Sikonge District authorities (Ref. SDC/2025/056). Village leaders in the study sites also granted permission to conduct research. All research procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations of the University of Dar es Salaam and complied with national research ethics standards in Tanzania, as well as the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before their inclusion in the study. Participants were assured of confidentiality, anonymity, and their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without any consequences. All procedures were designed to ensure accuracy, transparency, and replicability. All participants provided informed written consent and voluntarily participated in the study. They were assured that their involvement was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time without consequences.

Consent for publication: Written informed consent for publication was obtained from all participants before data collection. Participants were informed that anonymised data, including quotations, would be used in academic publications. No identifying information is included in this manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.