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Article History

Received: 23 February 2026

Accepted: 10 June 2026

First Online: 7 July 2026

Declarations

:

: All sources of material used in this work have been appropriately acknowledged. The work is approved by the NORHED-EnPe Project research funding at Hawassa University and the University of Eduardo Mondlane (UEM), Department of Agricultural Economics. We also confirm that the study was presented and approved by the Seminar and Ethical Committee of the University of Eduardo Mondlane (UEM), under reference number FAEF-20244434/24, and was conducted in accordance with national and international human research guidelines. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant national and international guidelines and regulations for research involving human participants. Furthermore, the research was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (1964) and its subsequent amendments, as well as the National Research Ethics Review Guideline issued by the University of Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique . Informed oral consent was obtained from all respondents during the data collection process and was kept confidential, with their personal information, such as their name, phone number, village, and the names of the children of the head/spouse living elsewhere, not shared. We also applied all ethical principles in the use of the data and in the production of this study.

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.