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Article History

Received: 21 August 2025

Accepted: 13 July 2026

First Online: 4 August 2026

Declarations

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval: This study was conducted in accordance with recognised ethical standards for research involving human participants. The data collection was based on an anonymous online questionnaire distributed among Master’s students of Architecture at the Lisbon School of Architecture—University of Lisbon, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw University of Technology, and Bialystok University of Technology. Participation in the survey was entirely voluntary, and all respondents were informed about the scope and purpose of the research before their involvement. No personal or sensitive data was collected beyond basic demographic information, which was recorded anonymously.

Consent to participate: The research did not involve any interventions, experiments, or procedures that could pose risks to participants. All responses were processed in aggregate form and analysed solely for academic purposes. The study was reviewed internally to ensure compliance with the ethical requirements of the participating institutions. In line with the Declaration of Helsinki and general EU data protection principles (GDPR), the confidentiality and privacy of all participants were fully respected.