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Article History

Received: 18 August 2025

Accepted: 21 August 2026

First Online: 8 October 2026

Declarations

Conflict of interest: No direct funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript. Both authors are employees of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University, which receives funding from individuals, corporations and foundations. Non-financial interests: The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics is a member of the Partnership on AI (PAI), mentioned in case 3, and the authors of this paper have been involved in PAI activities for several years. The authors of this paper are two of the three co-authors of a book that is heavily referenced in this manuscript, Ethics in the Age of Disruptive Technologies: An Operational Roadmap. However, neither author has a financial interest in the sale of this book. It is available for free download on the website for the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Both authors are employees of the Markkula Center. The book is available for sale on Amazon, but proceeds go to the Markkula Center, not to the authors.