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Article History

Received: 20 January 2026

Accepted: 13 May 2026

First Online: 27 May 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval: This research is entirely computational and simulation-based. It does not involve human participants, human data, animal subjects, or biological materials. The experimental validation was conducted using a co-simulation environment comprising synthetic traffic models, publicly available smart city datasets (e.g., Madrid Air Quality Network) and standard network simulation tools. Primary data collection was not performed from human subjects. Therefore, approval from an ethics committee was not required for this study.

Consent to participate: This research did not involve any human participants, human data, or biological materials. No informed consent was required as the study is purely computational and simulation-based.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.