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Article History

Received: 1 June 2025

Accepted: 26 September 2025

First Online: 17 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: As no human participants were involved and the data is sourced from openly available, pre-approved datasets, ethical approval and informed consent were not required. Our study is based entirely on publicly available benchmark datasets for facial emotion recognition (e.g., FER-2013, CK+ , AffectNet, etc.) which are anonymized and pre-approved for research use. There was no direct involvement of human participants in our study. The study used publicly available datasets with anonymized data.

: This manuscript does not contain any individual person’s identifiable information, photographs, genetic profiles, or other personal data (such as names, dates of birth, identity numbers, facial features, fingerprints, writing style, voice patterns, or DNA).