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Article History

Received: 7 September 2025

Accepted: 24 October 2025

First Online: 21 November 2025

Declarations

:

: This research involved non-invasive experimentation on cows to collect vital health parameters while ensuring their well-being. All cows, irrespective of age or breed, were treated with care and respect. Data collection was conducted under the supervision and with the consent of a professional veterinary team, prioritizing the animals’ welfare. No harmful procedures were used, and veterinarians confirmed that the sensor device caused no lasting harm. Ethical approval was waived by the IPR, Legal, and Ethical Matters Committee of Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, as the study involved only non-invasive observation and monitoring, ensuring that no harm or distress was caused to the animals.Informed consent was obtained from the dairy farm owners and gaushala representatives prior to data collection.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.