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Article History

Received: 29 July 2025

Accepted: 10 November 2025

First Online: 30 December 2025

Declarations

:

: This study uses publicly available retinal image datasets (DRIVE and CHASE_DB1). No experiments involving human participants or animals were performed by the authors; therefore, ethical approval was not required.

: Not applicable, as the research does not involve human participants.

: All authors have read and approved the final manuscript and consent to its publication.

: The authors declare no competing interests.