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Article History

Received: 9 February 2026

Accepted: 14 August 2026

First Online: 29 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. This study is based entirely on the retrospective analysis of publicly available, fully anonymized, and de-identified retinal fundus image datasets (the internal eye_diseases_classification dataset and the external EYE-TRAIN-DATA dataset). Since the research did not involve any direct interaction with human participants, clinical trials, or access to identifiable personal health information, formal institutional ethical approval was not required. Not applicable. The study utilized secondary, open-source diagnostic datasets where all raw images had been thoroughly de-identified prior to public release. No direct patient recruitment, clinical interventions, or primary data collection were performed by the authors.

Consent for publication: Not applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual clinical case reports, identifiable personal details, or high-resolution facial photographs that would necessitate individual informed consent for publication.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.