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Article History

Received: 26 August 2025

Accepted: 20 January 2026

First Online: 28 January 2026

Declarations

:

: The Ethics Committee of Sunway University, Malaysia, reviewed and approved the study protocol along with all associated materials. Both ethical clearance (SUREC 2023/053) and biosafety approval were secured prior to the commencement of the experiments, ensuring full compliance with the highest ethical standards.

: This study did not involve the collection of plants or plant parts. Spent coffee grounds, considered post-consumer waste, were used as the sole raw material and were obtained from local commercial sources. Therefore, plant collection guidelines were not applicable, and no permits or licences were required.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.