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Article History

Received: 9 October 2025

Revised: 25 November 2025

Accepted: 26 December 2025

First Online: 28 January 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

: This research does not require ethics approval. The proposed framework is designed for non-invasive monitoring of photovoltaic systems using publicly available or drone-captured imagery and does not involve personal data or human subjects. When deployed in operational solar farms, the system will comply with relevant data privacy regulations and industry safety standards. The model outputs are intended to support maintenance decisions and do not replace certified human inspection.

: This research does not contain any individual person’s data.