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Article History

Received: 22 September 2025

Revised: 26 February 2026

Accepted: 4 March 2026

First Online: 31 March 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This research work solely utilized publicly available retinal image datasets. No new data were collected, and no direct interaction with human participants occurred for this research.

: This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

: I certify that I have explained the nature and purpose of this study to the above-named individual, and I have discussed the potential benefits of this study participation. The questions the individual had about this study have been answered, and we will always be available to address future questions.