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Authors
Makhmetov, Askhat https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8810-9549
Satanov, Arstan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3206-4976
Yessenbekova, Kymbat https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2651-0896
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Article History
Received: 23 September 2025
Accepted: 9 January 2026
First Online: 1 February 2026
Declarations
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: This study constitutes a secondary analysis of publicly available, de-identified data from the PISA 2022 assessment; therefore, specific institutional ethical approval was not required. The original data collection was governed by the PISA Governing Board and executed by the respective National Centers in accordance with the OECD’s comprehensive technical standards and data protection regulations. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants and/or their legal guardians by the respective national centers during the original PISA 2022 data collection.
: Not applicable. This study utilizes anonymized data and does not contain information that could identify individual participants.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
