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Article History

Received: 28 September 2025

Accepted: 25 May 2026

First Online: 10 June 2026

Declarations

:

: This study constitutes a secondary analysis of publicly available, de-identified data from the PISA 2022 assessment; therefore, specific institutional ethical approval was not required. The original data collection was governed by the PISA Governing Board and executed by the respective National Centers in accordance with the OECD’s comprehensive technical standards and data protection regulations.

: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants and/or their legal guardians by the respective national centers during the original PISA 2022 data collection.

: Not applicable. This study utilizes anonymized data and does not contain information that could identify individual participants.

: The authors declare no competing interests.