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Article History

Received: 5 May 2025

Accepted: 19 June 2026

First Online: 24 June 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The researchers obtained ethical approval from the University of Dar es Salaam on behalf of the Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH), through letter Ref. No. AB3/12(B), dated 16 August 2023. The clearance, which facilitated personal introductions and authorisation to collect data in Dodoma and Manyara regions. Additionally, government authorities from the respective regions granted permission to collect data from the selected schools. The study was performed in accordance with the National Research Integrity Framework of Tanzania under COSTECH, the Research Ethics and Operational Guidelines of the University of Dar es Salaam, and the administrative requirements governing research approval and clearance in Tanzania, since it involves human participants, including students and heads of schools.All participants were informed about the purpose and procedure of the study and agreed to participate voluntarily. Written informed consent was obtained and signed by all the participants before data collection. For student participants below 18 years, a consent form was given to be signed by their parents at home, and their class teachers as guardians at school, who signed and allowed students' participation in the study. Also, the study was explained to students, and they voluntarily agreed to participate by completing the questionnaire.

Consent for publication: Not applicable, since the study did not include any identifiable personal data or images of the participants.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.