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Article History

Received: 12 November 2025

Revised: 12 March 2026

Accepted: 9 April 2026

First Online: 29 April 2026

Declarations

:

: This study analyzed passively collected Wi-Fi probe logs recorded in public campus spaces in accordance with institutional data-governance policies for research use. Although device identifiers (MAC addresses) were present in the raw logs, they were pseudonymized at the point of data intake, prior to any analytical processing. Specifically, MAC addresses were transformed into study-specific pseudonymous identifiers using a one-way cryptographic hash function (e.g., SHA-256; non-reversible). All subsequent analyses were conducted exclusively on these pseudonymous identifiers. The publicly available dataset contains only pseudonymous identifiers and spatiotemporal records, with no names, accounts, or other direct personal identifiers. Access to the original raw logs was strictly restricted to authorized members of the research team. Under applicable institutional data-governance policies for observational data collected in public settings and processed in pseudonymized form, formal ethics approval and individual informed consent were not required for this study.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.