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Article History

Received: 18 August 2025

Accepted: 26 December 2025

First Online: 5 January 2026

Declarations

:

: The study was approved by a government approval board under the President’s Office, Regional and Local Government Authority (reference number AB.307/323/01/184) through the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology. The study adhered to the guidelines for the Protection of Research Participants and the Declaration of Helsinki (1964). Ethical approval was granted by the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology Ethics board, the KNCHREC which confirmed that the research was survey-based and was conducted according to ethical standards adhered to relevant guidelines and regulations. All participants in the survey were thoroughly informed about the objectives of the study, and informed consent was obtained prior to the interviews. Verbal consent was documented in KOBO Collect on tablets, confirming participants’ understanding of the study’s purpose, their voluntary participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. The study involved farm-level surveys of social capital and supply chain performance of smallholder vegetable farmers in selected areas of Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the relevant ethical standards and with the informed consent of the participants. All participants were adults above the age of 18 years.

: Verbal consent was obtained from all participant for the dissemination of study findings in academic journals and other scientific platforms. The publication does not include any personally identifiable information or images. Furthermore, oral consent was secured from all co-authors for the submission and publication of this article in Discover Agriculture.

: The authors declare no competing interests.