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Article History

Received: 19 February 2026

Accepted: 5 June 2026

First Online: 9 June 2026

Declarations

:

: This study did not involve any direct interaction with human participants, nor did it involve the collection of human data, human tissue, or any personally identifiable information. The research utilized publicly available satellite imagery (Landsat TM/OLI, Sentinel-1 SAR), Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data from USGS, soil data from the FAO Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD), and secondary rainfall data from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET). All field investigations conducted for validation purposes involved only the collection of geographic coordinates of manholes, gutters, and land cover features; no human subjects were surveyed, interviewed, or subjected to any experimental procedure. Therefore, ethics approval was not required for this study.

: This study did not involve human participants, human data, or human tissue from which informed consent would be required. Not applicable.

: This manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data in any form (including but not limited to photographs, videos, audio recordings, or any identifiable personal information). All figures presented in this manuscript are derived from publicly available satellite imagery, modeled outputs, or field photographs of drainage infrastructure that do not depict any identifiable persons. Therefore, consent for publication from any individual is not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.