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Article History

Received: 26 April 2025

Accepted: 14 August 2025

First Online: 22 August 2025

Declarations

:

: The protocol for handling and collecting animal samples (rodents and domestic dogs) was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sokoine University of Agriculture (Ref. No. SUA/ADM/R.1/8A/718, dated 3rd February 2021), while approval for human subjects was obtained from the Ethical Review Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research (Ref. No. NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol. IX/3676, dated 19th May 2021). All procedures involving human participants were conducted following the ethical standards of the national research committee and adhering to the principles of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. Research permits were issued by the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH), following clearance from the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (Ref. No. 2023-38-NA-2022-480). Additional permission to conduct the study in the field sites was granted by regional and local authorities in Arusha (Ref. No. FA.132/95/01/38, dated 12th February 2021) and Ngorongoro District (Ref. No. AB.114/354/01/134, dated 1st April 2021).

: Written informed consent was obtained from all participating households.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.