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Article History

Received: 12 November 2025

Accepted: 21 January 2026

First Online: 13 March 2026

Declarations

:

: Not Applicable, because all samples were collected non-invasively from naturally voided faeces without any handling, restraint, or experimental manipulation of the animals. All private owners of the buffaloes provided informed consent prior to the inclusion of their animals in this study. The owners agreed to the noninvasive faecal sampling procedures and to the use of the resulting data for scientific research.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.