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Article History

Received: 27 December 2025

Revised: 17 April 2026

Accepted: 20 April 2026

First Online: 17 May 2026

Declarations

:

: This study did not involve human participants, animal subjects, or sensitive personal data. All experiments were conducted entirely on a virtualised network emulation testbed (Mininet–Faucet–Prometheus) using synthetic network traffic and automated fault injection. No ethical approval was required for this research. This study did not involve human participants or any form of human subjects research.

: All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and consent to its publication in this journal.

: The authors declare no competing interests.