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Article History

Received: 9 July 2025

Accepted: 5 November 2025

First Online: 1 December 2025

Declarations

:

: This study involved an anonymous, minimal-risk online questionnaire conducted with adult international students in Japan. The survey was distributed via the International Office of Ehime University. In accordance with institutional policies and established guidelines for low-risk social science research, formal approval from an ethics committee was not required or sought. No personal or sensitive data was collected.

: Before participation, all respondents were presented with a consent page outlining the study’s objectives, estimated time commitment, data confidentiality, and the voluntary nature of participation. Only individuals who actively provided consent by selecting “Yes, I agree” were permitted to proceed with the survey.

: During the preparation of this manuscript, ChatGPT was employed solely to enhance the text clarity, language, and overall readability. The tool was not involved in generating the original content or conceptual development. The authors reviewed, revised, and verified all AI-assisted outputs to ensure accuracy, coherence, and scientific integrity. The authors take full responsibility for the final content of the submitted and published work.

: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

: The authors declare no competing interests.