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Article History

Received: 5 December 2025

Accepted: 9 March 2026

First Online: 19 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study involved human participants; however, no personally identifiable information was collected or used. The study was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for research involving human participants. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data and sample collection. The protocol was approved by the University Senate Research Grant Committee of the National Open University of Nigeria in accordance with the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA).

: Water and soil samples were collected from publicly accessible areas of the study site. No sampling occurred within restricted areas, protected zones, or private property; therefore, institutional or governmental permission was not required according to local environmental research guidelines.

: Plant samples were collected only after verbal permission was obtained from the local farmers who owned or managed the cultivated plots. No sampling was carried out within restricted, protected, or privately controlled areas without consent.

: Dr. Namadi Sanusi identified the plants with the following Voucher Numbers: ABUH09831 (Manihot esculenta) and Voucher Number:- ABUH0731 (Amaranthus viridis) from the Herbarium of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

: The participants provided their informed consent for the publication of identifiable images.

: Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to sample collection in the study area, in accordance with approved ethical guidelines.

: The authors declare no competing interests.