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Article History

Received: 22 January 2026

Accepted: 23 April 2026

First Online: 27 April 2026

Declarations

:

: The palm kernel shells used in this study were obtained from Elaeis guineensis (oil palm). The material was sourced as an agricultural by-product from the Sri Gambang palm oil processing facility, Malaysia. The collection and use of the palm kernel shells complied with local and national regulations governing the use of plant-derived materials and agricultural waste. The plant material was not collected from wild or protected populations, and no endangered or protected species were involved in this study. Permission to collect and use the palm kernel shells for research purposes was obtained from the management of the Sri Gambang palm oil processing facility. No additional licences were required.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.