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Article History

Received: 24 December 2025

Accepted: 2 July 2026

First Online: 21 July 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study did not involve human participants, human tissues, animals, or identifiable personal data. The experimental data used in this work were obtained from previously conducted laboratory investigations on concrete materials. Therefore, ethical approval was not required for this research.

Consent for publication: Not applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data, images, or identifying information requiring consent for publication.

AI-assisted language: The authors used AI-assisted language editing tools solely for grammar refinement, language clarity, and readability improvement during manuscript preparation. All scientific content, data analysis, model development, interpretation, and final manuscript verification were performed entirely by the authors.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.