Document is current

Article History

Received: 17 February 2026

Accepted: 19 April 2026

First Online: 2 May 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval: The current work relies on the HAJJv2 public research benchmark and Quran Channel which is public channel and available for all, which only contains de-identified video data. The proposed framework is focused on the macroscopic patterns of crowd flow, not identification. In accordance with data management guidelines, the system does not process or store individual facial features. Additionally, the system is intended as a non-intrusive safety layer, ensuring that the monitoring of the event, especially during religious rituals, respects the sanctity of the event while adhering to the relevant regulations for the region concerning the surveillance of public safety.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.