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Article History

Received: 13 September 2025

Accepted: 12 December 2025

First Online: 15 January 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was reviewed and approved by the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI), Kenya. All participants were fully informed about the purpose, scope, and procedures of the research. Written consent was obtained from each participant through a signed consent form prior to data collection. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their information, which was used solely for research purposes.

: All participants provided informed consent for the use of their data in publications arising from this research. No personally identifiable information is included in the manuscript, and all results are presented in aggregate form to ensure confidentiality.

: While this study provides robust empirical insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the analysis relies on cross-sectional data, which restricts the ability to examine seasonal fluctuations or dynamic coping strategies that vary across the year. Second, although the Monte Carlo simulations incorporate stochastic variation, they cannot perfectly replicate the full spectrum of real-world supply chain disruptions or behavioral adjustments. Finally, the study focuses on nine informal settlements in Nairobi, and future research could extend this framework to rural–urban corridors or panel datasets to assess long-term resilience trajectories. These limitations present opportunities for further inquiry using longitudinal or high-frequency survey designs.

: The authors declare no conflict of interest of any kind.