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Authors
Tsai, Alissa
Zhu, Yongxian
Heidari, Mohammadreza
Cooper, Daniel R.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Department of Energy (DEEE0007897)
Climate Imperative
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Article History
Received: 27 November 2025
Accepted: 5 June 2026
First Online: 7 August 2026
Declarations
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Supporting Information SI1:: This supplementary information document provides additional methodological details and supplementary result figures for the linear optimization model.
Supporting Information SI2:: This supplementary information provides tabulated data on compositions, the material flow inputs (DMFA results and vehicle lifespan distributions), emissions trajectories, model result key metrics, optimal material flows under different recycling scenarios, and compositional constraint analyses. The Python code for the model can be found at the Github repository: .
