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Authors
Khunthong, Phichet https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5594-2680
Vittayapraparat, Panuwat https://orcid.org/0009-0008-4415-8973
Puangthongthub, Sitthichok https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4567-7571
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Article History
Received: 12 May 2025
Revised: 15 February 2026
Accepted: 10 March 2026
First Online: 24 March 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: All procedures were conducted in accordance with relevant national regulations and ethical standards. This study used secondary, anonymized mortality data without personal identifiers. Under the National Commission on Science, Research and Innovation regulation, Section 3(2), research using non-identifiable existing data and involving no participant contact is exempt from institutional ethics committee review. It was reviewed by the Graduate Program, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, and was determined to be exempt from Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval under the applicable Thai regulations governing human research ethics. As the study relied solely on de-identified secondary data, informed consent was not required. No identifiable personal data or images are included in this publication.
