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Authors
Kang, Ni
Yang, Zhenchun
Petrick, Lauren M.
Rahman, Md Mostafijur
Pavlovic, Nathan
Lurmann, Frederick W.
Martinez, Mayra P.
Yu, Xin
Chow, Ting
Eckel, Sandrah P.
Schwartz, Joel
Chen, Jiu-Chiuan
McConnell, Rob
Xiang, Anny H.
Chen, Zhanghua
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Article History
Received: 2 May 2025
Revised: 27 March 2026
Accepted: 5 April 2026
First Online: 27 April 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare they have no actual or potential competing interests. Joel Schwartz declares that he has testified on behalf of the U.S. Department of Justice in a case involving a Clean Air Act violation. Frederick Lurmann and Nathan Pavlovic are employed by Sonoma Technology, Inc., Petaluma, CA.
: This study was conducted in accordance with all relevant guidelines and regulations. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards of Kaiser Permanente Southern California (KPSC; IRB No. 12075) and the University of Southern California (USC; IRB No. HS-19-00358). The requirement for informed consent was waived by both Institutional Review Boards due to the retrospective nature of the study and the use of de-identified data.
