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Article History

Received: 29 July 2025

Revised: 14 February 2026

Accepted: 26 February 2026

First Online: 9 March 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: a) All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. b) This study utilized data from MIMIC-IV (Version 3.1), which received institutional review board approval from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (No. 0403000206) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC). Access to the database was granted to author Jia-hao Dou after completing the required Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) program and signing the data use agreement. All data usage complied with applicable regulations on privacy, data access, and ethical conduct. c) The IRBs of MIT and BIDMC waived the requirement for informed consent because all patient data in the MIMIC-IV database are fully anonymized before public release to protect patient privacy, and the study was retrospective in nature. d) No identifiable images of human research participants were used in the article.