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Article History

Received: 20 March 2025

Revised: 12 November 2025

Accepted: 2 December 2025

First Online: 15 December 2025

Ethics approval and consent to participate

: Animal experiments were performed in accordance with guidelines approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University (Approval Nos. 202103010S, 202412026S). Data used in the preparation of this article were obtained from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development SM (ABCD) Study ( ), held in the NIMH Data Archive (NDA). This is a multisite, longitudinal study designed to recruit more than 10,000 children age 9–10 and follow them over 10 years into early adulthood. The ABCD Study® is supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and additional federal partners under award numbers U01DA041048, U01DA050989, U01DA051016, U01DA041022, U01DA051018, U01DA051037, U01DA050987, U01DA041174, U01DA041106, U01DA041117, U01DA041028, U01DA041134, U01DA050988, U01DA051039, U01DA041156, U01DA041025, U01DA041120, U01DA051038, U01DA041148, U01DA041093, U01DA041089, U24DA041123, U24DA041147. A full list of supporters is available at . A listing of participating sites and a complete listing of the study investigators can be found at . ABCD consortium investigators designed and implemented the study and/or provided data but did not necessarily participate in the analysis or writing of this report. This manuscript reflects the views of the authors and may not reflect the opinions or views of the NIH or ABCD consortium investigators. The ABCD data repository grows and changes over time. The ABCD data used in this report came from NIMH Data Archive .

: The authors declare no competing interests.