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Authors
Jörg, Marko https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5799-1172
Walz, Lukas
Nathal, Sebastian
Kristen, Marco
Lietz, Christine
Müller, Max https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7673-1559
Nguyen, Vu Thu Thuy
Ruffini, Nicolas https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3342-6756
Winz, Marie-Luise https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0740-8618
Gerber, Susanne https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9513-0729
Endres, Kristina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1099-8287
Helm, Mark
Friedland, Kristina https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8603-5957
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
TRR319 RMaP seed funding
NeurodegX of the MWG Rhineland-Palatinate
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (TRR319 RMaP (Project Id 439669440) TPB05)
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (TRR319 RMaP (Project Id 439669440) TP A05)
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Article History
Received: 12 September 2025
Revised: 22 April 2026
Accepted: 20 May 2026
First Online: 2 June 2026
Competing interests
: Mark Helm is a consultant for Moderna Inc.
: All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. The Religious Orders Study and Rush Memory and Aging Project (ROSMAP) were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Rush University Medical Center (ROS IRB# L91020181, MAP IRB# L86121802, RADC Repository IRB# L99032481) and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided informed consent and signed an Anatomic Gift Act and RADC Repository consent allowing data and biospecimens to be repurposed. The Adult Changes in Thought (ACT) study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kaiser Permanente Washington Health Research Institute. Participants provided informed consent at enrollment and renewed consent at each study visit, including permission for sharing de-identified data with external investigators. Human postmortem brain samples from the Netherlands Brain Bank (NBB; project number 1341) were obtained in accordance with the ethical and legal guidelines of the NBB. All procedures were approved by the Independent Review Board Ethics Committee of the VU University Medical Center (Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Medisch Ethische Toetsingscommissie, METc #2009/148). All participants provided informed consent for postmortem brain autopsy and the use of brain tissue and clinical data for research purposes. All animal procedures were conducted in accordance with the European Communities Council Directive (2010/63/EU), the ARRIVE guidelines and the local animal ethics committee guidelines (Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, LUA).
