Document is current

Article History

Received: 1 May 2025

Revised: 29 April 2026

Accepted: 3 June 2026

First Online: 16 June 2026

Competing interests

: Prof. Cortese has declared reimbursement for travel and accommodation expenses from the Association for Child and Adolescent Central Health (ACAMH) in relation to lectures delivered for ACAMH, the Canadian AADHD Alliance Resource, the British Association of Psychopharmacology, Healthcare Convention and CCM Group team for educational activity on ADHD, and has received honoraria from Medice. Marco Solmi has received honoraria and/or served as a consultant for AbbVie, Angelini, Bausch Health, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pharmascience, Lundbeck, Otsuka, and Teva. Marco Solmi also holds shares in MESAS and S2M. The other authors declare no relevant conflicts of interest in relation to this paper.

: This study is based on publicly available, de-identified data from the GBD database and does not involve any individual person’s data.

: This study is based on publicly available data from the GBD database, which is fully de-identified and aggregated. Ethical approval and consent to participate were not required, as this research did not involve human participants or personal data. Informed consent was not required. Relevant guidelines and regulations: we followed the standard procedure recommended to register additional publication from GBD2019 project after publication of capstone paper. No identifiable images were used.