Document is current

Article History

Received: 3 May 2026

Revised: 12 May 2026

Accepted: 16 June 2026

First Online: 26 June 2026

Competing interests

: There are no personal financial conflicts of interest related to the present results. SLee, SRB, GTB, STP, WJD, BSZ, NMC, and SLariviere report no conflicts with any concept discussed in this article. MDF reports consulting fees from Magnus Medical, Sorterix, Abott, and Boston Scientific. MDF also owns independent intellectual property involving the use of functional connectivity to target TMS for depression, which was filed in 2013, has yielded no royalties and does not cover the present work. RAS has served as a paid consultant for AbbVie, AC Immune, Acumen, Alector, Apellis, Biohaven, Bristol Myers Squibb, Genentech, Ionis, Janssen, Oligomerix, Prothena, Roche, and Vaxxinity. She has received research funding from Eisai and Eli Lilly for public-private partnership clinical trials and receives research grant funding from the National Institute on Aging/National Institutes of Health, GHR Foundation, and the Alzheimer’s Association. Her spouse, K. Johnson, reports consulting fees from Novartis, Merck, and Janssen. NJD reports receiving royalties from the American Psychiatric Association Press, and honoraria and travel support for Harvard University, Harvard Medical School, and NIH-sponsored events. SHS is an owner of intellectual property involving the use of individualized resting-state network mapping to target TMS, which was filed in 2016, has yielded no royalties and does not cover the present work. SHS is also a scientific consultant for Magnus Medical, received investigator-initiated research funding from Neuronetics (2019) and Brainsway (2022), received speaking fees from Brainsway (2021) and Otsuka (for PsychU.org, 2021), and is a shareholder in Brainsway (publicly traded) and Magnus Medical (not publicly traded).

: The A4 (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02008357) and LEARN (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02488720) studies were coordinated by the Alzheimer’s Therapeutic Research Institute (ATRI) at the University of Southern California. Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional review board at each of the 67 participating sites in the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia. All participants and their study partners provided written informed consent prior to data collection, including consent for data sharing. All methods were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible institutional review boards and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975 (as revised in 1983).