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Article History

Received: 12 March 2025

Revised: 16 July 2025

Accepted: 22 July 2025

First Online: 5 September 2025

Competing interests

: Dr. Jha has the following conflicts to report: Contract research grants from Neurocrine Bioscience, Navitor/Supernus and Janssen Research & Development; consultant fees from Janssen Scientific Affairs and Boehringer Ingelheim; and fees to serve on Data Safety and Monitoring Board for Worldwide Clinical Trials (Eliem, Skye and Inversargo), Vicore Pharma and IQVIA (Click). Dr. Croarkin has received research support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Brain and Behavior Research Foundation and the Mayo Clinic Foundation. Dr. Croarkin has received research support from Pfizer, Inc. He has received grant-in-kind equipment support from Neuronetics, Inc.and MagVenture, Inc. for investigator-initiated studies. He received grant-in-kind supplies and genotyping from Assurex Health, Inc. for an investigator-initiated study. He served as the principal investigator for a multicenter study funded by Neuronetics Inc., a site principal investigator for a study funded by NeoSync, Inc., and site principal investigator for a study funded by Innosphere. Dr. Croarkin served as a paid consultant for Engrail Therapeutics, Meta Platforms, Inc, MindMed, Myriad Neuroscience,Procter & Gamble Company, and Sunovion. .Dr. Croarkin is employed by Mayo Clinic. He receives compensation as the Editor-in-Chief for the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. Dr. Chin Fatt has served as an advisor for Janssen Research & Development. Dr. Foster has served on the Scientific Advisory Board for MRM Health NL and has received consulting/speaker fees from Takeda Canada, Rothman, Benson, Hedges Inc., and WebMD. Dr. Trivedi has provided consulting services to Alkermes Inc, Axsome Therapeutics, Biogen MA Inc., Cerebral Inc., Circular Genomics Inc, Compass Pathfinder Limited, GH Research Limited, Heading Health Inc, Janssen, Legion Health Inc, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Mind Medicine (MindMed) Inc, Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC, Naki Health, Ltd., Neurocrine Biosciences Inc, Noema Pharma AG, Orexo US Inc, Otsuka American Pharmaceutical Inc, Otsuka Canada Pharmaceutical Inc, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Development & Commercialization Inc, Praxis Precision Medicines Inc, SAGE Therapeutics, SparianBiosciences Inc, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd, WebMD. He sits on the Scientific Advisory Board of Alto Neuroscience Inc, Cerebral Inc., Compass Pathfinder Limited, Heading Health, GreenLight VitalSign6 Inc, Legion Health Inc, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp, Orexo US Inc, Signant Health. He holds stock in Alto Neuroscience Inc, Cerebral Inc, Circular Genomics Inc, GreenLight VitalSign6 Inc, Legion Health Inc. Additionally, he has received editorial compensation from American Psychiatric Association, and Oxford University Press. Dr Carmody has received consultant fees from Holmusk Technologies, Inc. Dr. Minhajuddin reports no conflicts of interest. Dr. Bobo has received research support from NIH, NSF, AHRQ, the Watzinger Foundation, the Blue Gator Foundation, the Myocarditis Foundation, and the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. He has contributed chapters to UpToDate on the pharmacological management of bipolar major depression. Dr. Toll reports no conflicts of interest. Dr. Athreya has received research support from NIH, NSF, the Watzinger Foundation, the Blue Gator Foundation, and the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. The remaining authors have nothing to disclose.

: This work’s earlier findings were presented as a Poster at the 2025 Annual meeting of Am. College of Neuropsychopharmacology, Scottsdale, AZ, USA.