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Article History

Received: 10 May 2025

Revised: 11 March 2026

Accepted: 30 March 2026

First Online: 29 April 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The human glioma tissues were obtained from glioma patients treated in Tiantan Hospital of Capital Medical University. Informed consent was obtained from patients enrolled in this study, and the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Tiantan Hospital of Capital Medical University approved the study protocol (KY2024-174-02). In this study, fresh GBM tissues were collected from 12 patients by surgical resection from 2023 to 2024. The inclusion criteria were as follows: patients treated by surgical resection and pathologic sampling; patients who were willing to provide disease-related materials, including pathologic diagnosis, relevant document records, medical records, and discarded GBM tissues from surgical resection; patients who were willing to provide contact information and maintain follow-up; patients who were willing to write informed consent of patients and/or the legal guardians; the researcher believed that participating in this study would not affect the treatment effect. Patients who did not meet any of the above criteria were excluded from this study. C57BL/6 mice were purchased from Beijing Vitalstar Biotechnology Co., Ltd., and bred under special pathogen-free (SPF) conditions. The Institutional Committee on Animal Care of Tiantan Hospital of Capital Medical University approved the protocols of this study (Yu2025117). All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.