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Article History

Received: 18 June 2025

Revised: 16 February 2026

Accepted: 26 February 2026

First Online: 18 March 2026

Competing interests

: NDS: Consulting or advisory role: AbbVie, Alkido, Amgen, Arquer Diagnostics, Asieris Pharmaceuticals, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boston Scientific, Bristol Myers Squibb/Sanofi, CG Oncology, Clarity Pharmaceuticals, Clovis Oncology, Dendreon, Exact Imaging, Exact Sciences, FerGene, Ferring, Foundation Medicine, GenesisCare, Genzyme, Guardant Health, ImmunityBio, Incyte, Invitae, Janssen Scientific Affairs, Lantheus, Lilly, MDxHealth, Medivation/Astellas, Merck, Minomic, Myovant Sciences, Myriad Genetics, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, Nonagen Bioscience, Novartis, Nymox, Pacific Edge Biotechnology, PeerView, Pfizer, Phosphorus, Photocure, PlatformQ Health, Profound Medical, Promaxo, Propella Therapeutics, Protara Therapeutics, Sanofi, Sesen Bio, Specialty Networks, Telix Pharmaceuticals, Tempus, Tolmar, UroGen Pharma, Vaxiion, Vessi Medical; Leadership: Alessa Therapeutics, Photocure; Speakers’ bureau: Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Clovis Oncology, Dendreon, Foundation Medicine, Guardant Health, Janssen, Merck, Pfizer; Expert testimony: Ferring; Other relationship: Alessa Therapeutics, Photocure; Research funding: AbbVie, Advantagene, Amgen, Aragon Pharmaceuticals, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boston Scientific, Bristol Myers Squibb/Pfizer, CG Oncology, Clovis Oncology, Dendreon, DisperSol, Endocyte, Exact Imaging, Exelixis, Ferring, FKD Therapies, Forma Therapeutics, Foundation Medicine, Genentech, Guardant Health, Invitae, Istari Oncology, Janssen, Jiangsu Yahong Meditech, MDxHealth, Medivation, Merck, MT Group, Myovant Sciences, Myriad Genetics, Novartis, Nymox, OncoCell MDx, ORIC Pharmaceuticals, Pacific Edge Biotechnology, Palette Life Sciences, Pfizer, Plexxikon, POINT Biopharma, Propella Therapeutics, RhoVac, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Sesen Bio, Steba Biotech, Theralase, Tolmar, UroGen Pharma, Veru, Zenflow. DJG: Consulting or advisory role: Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Constellation Pharmaceuticals, Exelixis, Genentech, Innocrin Pharma, Janssen, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Michael J. Hennessy Associates, Myovant Sciences, Pfizer, Physicians’ Education Resource, Propella Therapeutics, RevHealth, Sanofi, xCures; Leadership: Capio Biosciences; Speakers’ bureau: Bayer, Exelixis, Sanofi; Travel, accommodations, expenses: Bayer, Exelixis, Janssen Oncology, Merck, Pfizer, Sanofi, UroToday; Honoraria: Acceleron Pharma, American Association for Cancer Research, Axess Oncology, Bayer, EMD Serono, Exelixis, Janssen Oncology, Millennium Medical Publishing, OncLive, Pfizer, Sanofi, UroToday; Research funding: Acerta Pharma, Astellas, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Calithera Biosciences, Dendreon, Exelixis, Innocrin Pharma, Janssen Oncology, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi/Aventis. NK: Employment: Bayer; Consulting or advisory role: RWE consultant (self and immediate family member); Travel, accommodations, expenses: Bayer (self and immediate family member). NC: Employment: Bayer; Stock and other ownership interests: Bayer. GC: Employment: Bayer. MG: Employment: Bayer. VH: Employment: Bayer. AKM: Consulting or advisory role: Advanced Accelerator Applications, AstraZeneca, Astellas, Bayer, Blue Earth Diagnostics, Exelixis, Janssen, Lantheus Medical Imaging, Merck, Myovant Sciences, Myriad Genetics, Novartis; Travel, accommodations, expenses: Sanofi; Honoraria: Advanced Accelerator Applications, Astellas, Astellas Scientific and Medical Affairs, Inc, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Clovis Oncology, Exelixis, Genentech, Janssen, Janssen Oncology, Merck, Myovant Sciences, Pfizer, Sanofi; Research funding: Astellas Scientific and Medical Affairs, Inc, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Dendreon, Genentech, Myovant Sciences, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics/Astellas.

: The study received central institutional review board approval.

: As a secondary data analysis of de-identified patient data, no patient informed consent was required.