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Article History

Received: 9 August 2024

Revised: 14 January 2025

Accepted: 7 February 2025

First Online: 23 February 2025

Competing interests

: Y. Milaneschi has received consulting fees from Noema Pharma. A. John Rush has received consulting fees from Compass Inc., Curbstone Consultant LLC, Emmes Corp., Evecxia Therapeutics, Inc., Holmusk Technologies, Inc., ICON, PLC, Johnson and Johnson (Janssen), Liva-Nova, MindStreet, Inc., Neurocrine Biosciences Inc., Otsuka-US; speaking fees from Liva-Nova, Johnson and Johnson (Janssen); and royalties from Wolters Kluwer Health, Guilford Press and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX (for the Inventory of Depressive Symptoms and its derivatives). He is also named co-inventor on two patents: U.S. Patent No. 7,795,033: Methods to Predict the Outcome of Treatment with Antidepressant Medication, Inventors: McMahon FJ, Laje G, Manji H, Rush AJ, Paddock S, Wilson AS; and U.S. Patent No. 7,906,283: Methods to Identify Patients at Risk of Developing Adverse Events During Treatment with Antidepressant Medication, Inventors: McMahon FJ, Laje G, Manji H, Rush AJ, Paddock S. M. Arnold and G. Kastenmüller are co-inventors (through Duke University/Helmholtz Zentrum München) on patents on applications of metabolomics in diseases of the central nervous system and hold equity in Chymia LLC and IP in PsyProtix and Atai that are exploring the potential for therapeutic applications targeting mitochondrial metabolism in treatment-resistant depression. B. Dunlop has received research support from Boehringer Ingelheim, Compass Pathways, NIMH, Otsuka, Sage, Usona Institute, and Takeda and has served as a consultant for Biohaven, Cerebral Therapeutics, Myriad Neuroscience, NRx Pharmaceuticals, Otsuka, and Sage. R. Kaddurah-Daouk is an inventor on key patents in the field of Metabolomics and hold equity in Metabolon, a biotech company in North Carolina. In addition, she holds patents licensed to Chymia LLC and PsyProtix with royalties and ownership. The funders listed above had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the paper; and decision to submit the paper for publication. All the other authors declare no conflict of interest.

: NESDA’s research protocol was approved by the ethical review board of each participating research center in Amsterdam, Leiden, and Groningen (METC number 2003-183). All participants provided written informed consent after having received detailed verbal and printed study information.