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Article History

Received: 16 July 2025

Revised: 28 October 2025

Accepted: 7 November 2025

First Online: 26 November 2025

Competing interests

: GG and AM are employees of Empatica. HL reports receiving grants from TAKEDA and Shire Pharmaceuticals; personal fees from and serving as a speaker for Medice, Shire/Takeda Pharmaceuticals and Evolan Pharma AB; all outside the submitted work. HL is editor-in-chief of JCPP Advances. AF and RJBD are co-founders of Onsentia. AF holds shares of Google. JAR-Q was on the speakers’ bureau and/or acted as consultant for Biogen, Idorsia, Casen-Recordati, Johnson&Johnson, Novartis, Takeda, Bial, Sincrolab, Neuraxpharm, Novartis, Lilly, BMS, Medice, Rubió, Uriach, Technofarma and Raffo in the last 3 years. JAR-Q also received travel awards (air tickets + hotel) for taking part in psychiatric meetings from Biogen, Lilly,Idorsia, Johnson&Johnson, Rubió, Takeda, Bial and Medice. The Department of Psychiatry chaired by JAR-Q received unrestricted educational and research support from the following companies in the last 3 years: Exeltis, Idorsia, Casen-Recordati, Takeda, Neuraxpharm, Oryzon, Roche, Probitas and Rubió. Johnson&Johnson. JK has given talks at educational events sponsored by Medice; all funds are received by King’s College London and used for studies of ADHD.

: All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Ethical approval was obtained in London from the Camberwell St Giles Research Ethics Committee (REC reference: 21/LO/0825) and in Spain from the Vall d’Hebron University Hospital Ethics Committee (CEIm code: EOM(AG)004/2022(5944)). All participants provided written informed consent.