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Authors
Jiao, Jinghua https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3774-0021
Guo, Jian
Shen, Jianbo
Liu, Shuming
Zhang, Lijun
Sun, Dawei
Liu, Lei https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1807-7296
Shang, Xianwen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2362-3222
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Article History
Received: 7 August 2025
Revised: 19 February 2026
Accepted: 16 March 2026
First Online: 31 March 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Peking University. The English Longitudinal Study of Ageing was approved by the Ethics Review Committee of London Multi-Centre Research. The Health and Retirement Study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee of the University of Michigan. The Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science at the University of Mannheim. Informed consent was obtained from each subject in these four cohorts.
