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Article History

Received: 11 December 2025

Revised: 18 February 2026

Accepted: 16 March 2026

First Online: 30 March 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The original studies providing the HCP, AMUD, and MDD datasets received ethical approval from the relevant Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) or ethics committees. Specifically, the HCP study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Washington University in St. Louis, MO, USA, and written informed consent was obtained from each participant. All participants in the AMUD and MDD datasets provided informed consent under protocols approved by The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University. The datasets utilized in this study were anonymized to ensure participant confidentiality, containing no protected health information or personally identifiable images. All procedures involving human participants were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations, in compliance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable standards.