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Article History

Received: 24 October 2024

Revised: 22 July 2025

Accepted: 12 August 2025

First Online: 29 August 2025

Competing interests

: We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of the authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us.

: The UK Biobank study was approved by the North-West Multi-centre Research Ethics Committee (MREC), with approvals 06/MRE08/65, 11/NW/038, 16/NW/0274, and 21/NW/0157. The FinnGen study received approval from the Coordinating Ethics Committee of the Hospital District of Helsinki and Uusimaa (HUS), with statement number HUS/990/2017. Additional permits were granted by the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (multiple permit numbers, e.g., THL/2031/6.02.00/2017 and others), the Digital and Population Data Services Agency, the Social Insurance Institution (KELA), and Findata. The Million Veteran Program is a United States Department of Veterans Affairs initiative. All MVP research is reviewed and approved by the VA Central Institutional Review Board (IRB). The All of Us Research Program is overseen by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The study protocol and all participant-facing materials are reviewed and approved by a central IRB, specifically the All of Us Institutional Review Board. The PLCO trial was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the US National Cancer Institute and all participating screening centers. All participants of all studies provided written informed consent. We confirm that all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.